In a global context, analyse what is meant by “core areas” and “peripheries”.

“Globalization involves the imposition of Western culture on the entire world.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

In a global context, “core areas” can mean developed countries (eg G7/8 nations) while “peripheries” include a larger number of states at varying levels of economic development and with varying involvement in global interactions.

• The core and periphery are interdependent geographical entities that form a system and are linked/connected with one another in varied ways.
• Links/flows/connections include global/international movements of people, money, ideas, goods and resources.
• In the past, a simple core–periphery system existed, that is, “MEDCs and LEDCs” or “the global north and south”. However, the emergence of a semi-periphery (NICs / emerging economies / BRICs) has made the system more complex.
• One view is that countries can ‘advance’ over time from periphery to semi-periphery and eventually gain core status (eg South Korea); another view is that the core actively reproduces the poverty of the periphery.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to use the concept of scale to inform the analysis, eg there may be recognition that some world cities/megacities (eg Lagos) are global hubs (cores) despite belonging to “peripheral” countries (eg Nigeria). Another approach might be to analyse the way countries like China and India could be seen as “core” countries when viewed from a peripheral sub-Saharan African perspective.

Answers dealing only with national-scale core–periphery patterns (cities and rural regions within a country) are unlikely to reach band C but should be marked positively if the work shows understanding of core–periphery relationships (AO1) and is well structured (AO4).

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a basic global core–periphery pattern.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either a range of global core–periphery criteria and linkages/connections
• or more varied global core–periphery patterns/scales/perspectives.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus here is “Western culture”, which is a debatable concept in itself (expect some definition to be provided in a good answer). The merit of the answer is likely to depend on the variety of different cultural traits and contexts that are examined, and also the quality of any counter-arguments (eg many may argue “imposition” is the wrong word; fewer may also argue that non-Western cultural influences have spread globally too).

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• telecommunication network growth (and thus cultural diffusion) [Guide 2]
• issues of landscape homogenization [Guide 4]
• cultural diffusion linked with flows of people and commodities [Guide 5]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5]
• TNCs, glocalization and the adaption, not adoption, of culture [Guide 5]
• the concept of cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• anti-globalization movements (focused on culture) [Guide 5]
• isolated groups/states unaffected by Western/other influences [Guide 7]
• diaspora groups in Western states which do not embrace Western culture [Guide 5].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement, for example by evaluating the extent to which the adoption of Western culture is voluntary or forced. Another approach might be to examine the difference between broader “Western culture” and the narrower concept of “Americanization” (linked with a single superpower, the USA). Another approach might be to counter-argue the statement by evaluating the growing “imposition” of non-Western cultures on a global scale, eg Japanese, Indian, Chinese influences, or global movements linked with religion. Another approach might be to examine the extent to which culture is adapted/hybridized in local contexts, rather than simply “imposed”.

Polarized answers that deal only with Westernized and “non-Westernized” isolated states/people (N Korea or the Amish people) are unlikely to meet the critical evaluation criterion (which is required for band E).

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes (relating to culture) from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Explain the causes and consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries and/or waste disposal.

“All societies, wherever they are, enjoy the benefits of a shrinking world.” Discuss this statement.

Polluting industries include manufacturing or mining operations with a large footprint and a polluting or dangerous character in the absence of regulation (examples might include Apple’s contractors in China). There are also international movements of waste (for recycling or disposal), for example, UK wastes to China (recycling) and European waste taken by contractors to Ivory Coast (dumping). The oil industry has brought polluting operations to many territories. While this is not strictly a “relocation”, the benefit of the doubt should be given to accounts of the expansion/diffusion of polluting industries (ie consequences of oil pollution in new deep water sites, for example, Gulf of Mexico, new sites in Niger delta, should be credited). Also credit eutrophication linked to agro-industry/agribusiness, etc.

The causes might include a quest for cheap sites (thus higher profits) and expect explanations to include details of labour costs, lack of red tape, etc. Weaker answers are likely to neglect causes, or provide simple assertions only (eg “there’s too much waste nowadays”).

Consequences for both physical environments (landscape, ecosystems) and people should be addressed. Some may be positive (eg recycling waste as a resource; FDI and its multiplier effects). Long-term litigation and quest for justice could even be a theme that is explored.

For band C, at least one cause and one consequence must be described (or a wider range of ideas listed) with some exemplification (of either one relocation or waste disposal example).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the causes and consequences (do not expect balance; case study consequences are likely to be more detailed and may use more than one example/industry, though this is not required)
• or some explanation of how a single incidence of relocation/disposal can have more varied consequences for different places/people (eg origin and destination), though less supporting detail is given.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

“Shrinking world” (time-space compression) should be explained and related to different ICT and transport technologies [Guide 2]. Increased migration can be credited as a symptom of a shrinking world (because migrants make use of transport). Trade blocs/MGOs, eg EU, can play a supporting role (because the removal of border controls removes intervening obstacles to migration/transport).

Possible economic benefits derived from connectivity include: more profitable TNCs, with work opportunities for outsourcing locations and locations in receipt of FDI [Guide 3] especially when long view is taken (eg signs of factory reform in Bangladesh). A range of sociocultural benefits can be explored that relate to the sharing of global media, the growth of social networks, etc [Guide 5]. The ease with which migrant remittances can be wired home (or money transferred via mobiles) might be explored [Guide 5]. There are many other benefits that can be mentioned, for example, access to branded commodities [Guide 5].

There are, of course, cases where the statement may not be true and societies remain non-globalized/disconnected. Expect examples of indigenous people, isolated tribes, or variation within societies, for example, subsistence farmers [Guide 7].

Another counterargument would be the “one-sided” benefits of connectivity, wherein poorer connected places are exploited as low-wage production sites, possibly suffering environmental problems [Guide 4]; the sociocultural reaction against globalization, and movements aiming to limit shrinking world effects in some way, for example, increased food localism or the resurgence of nationalism [Guide 6, 7]. Indigenous people may be victims, not beneficiaries, of global interactions [Guide 5]. A current affairs focus might be on internet privacy/rights.

For band C, the shrinking world/globalization (may not distinguish) must be described and its benefits commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either both sides of the argument are addressed (some societies/places benefit, some do not not), displaying some synthesis of a range of ideas, mostly (but not always) linked to the idea of a shrinking world/technology and transport
• or some more explicit discussion of how “benefits” are not enjoyed by all people within the same society/not everyone agrees what is beneficial (eg some perspectives see globalization as a sovereignty threat).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, analyse the increasing uniformity of many of the world’s urban landscapes.

“Geographical differences in wealth are increasing, not decreasing.” Using examples, discuss this statement.

The focus is the character of the urban landscape, not city size.

“Uniformity” might relate to increased homogeneity of appearance, the growth of branded “commodityscapes” (clone towns), the trend towards a “global language” of modern architecture (“technoscapes”), the recurrence of some global diaspora groups in multiple world cities (eg, Chinatowns). The concept of landscape could also encompass the associated concept of soundscape (common music and languages that are heard in many places) and the ubiquity of English or Spanish words and brand names in advertising and public spaces in world cities and airports.

The analysis should go beyond mere description to offer some analysis of why this is happening (this might encompass the power of TNCs, superpower states such as the USA, the influential role of some architects).

Good answers may analyse the category of “urban landscapes” and might distinguish, using the concept of scale, between megacities, world cities and smaller towns. Another approach would be to analyse a trend towards uniformity in some – but not all – respects. There are many “mixed” urban landscapes, like London and Paris, which retain heritage alongside new technoscapes (in contrast to some cities, such as Doha and Dubai, which lack the same mix).

Do not over-credit answers which compare the size, function and sustainability of cities unless there is some clear reference to the taught elements of the paper three course which deal with landscape characteristics.

For band C (4-6 marks), expect a weakly-evidenced outline of one or two ways in which recognizable place(s) are becoming increasingly uniform (eg branded logos).

For band D (7-8 marks), expect

• either a more detailed and well-exemplified analysis of the increased uniformity of urban landscapes
• or an analysis that contains explanatory elements (such as the power of planners and corporations, or demands of consumers).

For band E (9-10 marks), expect both band D traits.

[10 marks]

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on wealth differences. The question presents the view that these are increasing between places, but also requires consideration of an opposing view (that they are decreasing). Both should be addressed with appropriate supporting evidence. The economic development of BRICs/semi-periphery nations might be contrasted with the struggles that still prevail in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Possible themes from the geography guide include:

• changes in the global core and periphery system/pattern [Guide 2]
• financial flows/relationships such as remittances/aid/SAPs/outsourcing, and their varied effects on people and places [Guide 3]
• the role of financial institutions (IMF, WTO) [Guide 3]
• multi-governmental organizations and the way they both ameliorate and accentuate disparities through trade agreements (and, in the case of the EU, through migration) [Guide 6]
• political isolationism and the effect of this on disparities [Guide 7]
• various reactions against global interactions and their economic impacts (for instance, local sourcing of food is not in the immediate economic interest of farmers in distant countries) [Guide 7].

Good answers are likely to discuss the geographic scale of the differences. Differences have grown within some countries like India and China at the same time as the global development gap between India/China and high-income nations has narrowed. Good answers may also discuss the ongoing (or perhaps even increasing) exploitation of workers, women or other social groups within countries that are showing progress, in terms of wealth/GDP/GNI, when measured at the national/aggregate level.

For band C (5-8 marks), expect a weakly-evidenced outline of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9-12 marks), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13-15 marks), expect both of these traits.

[15 marks]

Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of one named globalization index.

“Individuals, national governments and international organizations are increasingly resistant to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Expect either the KOF or Kearney index to be selected. There are other possibilities, for example, Maastricht globalization index; CSGR (Warwick); Ernst & Young.

Strengths include the multi-strand approach taken, recognizing that globalization comprises a range of processes that need to be measured, for example, KOF distinguishes between political, social and economic measures of globalization while Kearney uses four categories (economic, personal, technological or political integration).

Weaknesses can be conceptual (what is not included) or empirical (difficulties in collecting data and accuracy issues), for example, KOF’s measures of social globalization are easily critiqued, such as the “proximity” of data.

For band C, one recognizable index of globalization should be described in a way that implies it has merit (has different strands) and may state one or two basic weaknesses.

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the chosen multi-strand index (with some attempt made to describe some weakness)
• or greater understanding of the weaknesses of economic and social data collection/comparisons in general (eg appreciates different perspectives on what is viewed as important; knows about flaws in survey methodology).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions should be defined as a broad set of economic and sociocultural exchanges.

At the individual scale, a range of civil society initiatives can be discussed, such as Occupy/anti-globalization and, at the other end of the political spectrum, anti-immigration/nationalists [Guide 7]. However, some individuals continue to embrace the shrinking world [Guide 2] for a range of economic/cultural reasons [Guide 5].

Evidence of resistance at the national level might include individual government attitudes towards the arrival of global media corporations [Guide 5] or towards immigration and diaspora growth [Guide 5] or towards MGO membership [Guide 6]. However, governments also recognize the advantages of globalization, free trade and financial flows [Guide 5].

The concept of “international organizations” embraces MGOs [Guide 6] and international aid and development agencies responsible for financial flows, such as the politically-guided work of the IMF [Guide 2]. It is likely that candidates will choose to argue against the statement at this final scale.

Because the question specifies three scales of resistance, there are several routes to discussing the statement. One might be to offer some counterarguments (eg shows that some national governments embrace global interactions). Another might be to discuss the extent to which resistance is exhibited by individuals compared with governments and international organizations. Another might be to consider whether different kinds of interaction meet with varying strength or resistance (eg China embracing trade but resists information exchange). Each approach must be assessed on its own merits. However, a response that merely agrees with the statement cannot progress beyond the band C/D border.

For band C, resistance to global interactions must be identified at all three scales, with description provided of at least two.

To access band D, expect:

• either broader knowledge of a range of reactions, at some different scales (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, eg by comparing negative reactions at different scales; or by comparing positive and negative reactions at some of the specified scales ie individuals, governments and organizations)
• or some explicit discussion of the way that different types of global interaction may prompt different kinds of reaction at one/some of the specified scales.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using one or more examples, analyse the impact of diasporas on local cultures.

“Globalization is unstoppable.” Discuss this statement.

“Diaspora” describes a scattered community of common ancestry. Diaspora can be a product of migration or of territorial disintegration leaving a cultural group straddling different national borders. Likely examples for analysis will include: Polish, Chinese, Jewish, Indian, Irish, Scottish, English, Caribbean, Nigerian diasporas – but there are of course many other possibilities. Credit should be given to answers that provide clear details of the global diaspora pattern(s).

The preservation of migrant culture is a common diaspora trait, albeit in hybridized or fossilized forms, both of which may be explored, depending on the view taken of what “local culture” means. The adoption of minority diaspora traits by a host country culture (for example, US “melting pot” ideas) is another approach. 

The answer could discuss how the local culture of the origin country (for example, Ireland, Poland) may have been affected, for example, “fossilization” of the tourist industry. Another approach might be to address the great variability in local cultural forms for different parts of a diaspora (for example, comparing Jewish culture in the UK with that of the USA).

The approach taken will depend on the example(s) used and each answer should be credited in terms of its merits and should not be negatively marked if many of the themes suggested by this markscheme are not present but other valid content is provided. 

At the band C/D border, the focus on diaspora may still be insecure (for example, the concept of scattered population not fully understood), or the answer is more concerned with the impacts of a simple migration flow, but the focus on cultural impacts should be secure (alternatively, may have a good grasp of what diaspora is but fails to focus on culture).

At the band D/E border, expect some range of impacts to be addressed for a named and understood diaspora. At band E, the diaspora concept ought to be handled well (may consider cultural impacts for source and various hosts, or compare the cultural traits of different regional communities within the global diaspora).

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Globalization can be analysed as a purely economic set of processes or as a broader concept that embraces ideas of cultural and political change also. Either approach is acceptable. Globalization has accelerated over time as different indexes of globalization (Kearney, KOF) show [Guide 1.1] although the credit crunch/global slowdown may have shaken the faith of hyper-globalizers since 2008. Technology continues to develop, furthering possibilities for economic and social integration at different scales [Guide 2.1 and 2.2]. Companies are quick to exploit technical innovations and network growth seems certain to continue [Guide 3.3].

There are many other themes that can be explored which can be linked with the idea of globalization as a continuing trend, for example, lax labour/safety/environmental laws will continue to attract TNC operations to some places, further globalizing economic activity [Guide 4.2]. The economic clout of TNCs also means further growth of successful firms through mergers and acquisitions. The trend for MGOs is also likely for a variety of reasons [Guide 6.1].

The other side of the debate looks at possible reasons why globalization might be challenged/slow down (albeit temporarily) and there are internal and external pressures that could possibly be considered. The former includes the global credit crunch/sub-prime crisis and consequent collapse of key financial TNCs, a problem which subsequently escalated into a threat to sovereign states within the global core (Iceland, Ireland, Greece, and Spain). External threats include resistance movements (anti-globalization movements) as well as the fact that the strong Indo-Chinese dimensions to 21st century global economic growth could be seen as a threat to globalization as a project that is synonymous with Americanization.

Resistance could also be mounted against further losses to sovereignty and independence posed by the growth of MGOs [Guide 6.2, 7.3 and 7.4]. 

Responses must address both sides of the argument at band D. For band E expect balance and a proper, evidence-based evaluation of the statement.

A superficial understanding of diaspora allowed many to access band D. Candidates scoring 7 or 8 marks sometimes provided, essentially, an account of a single migration but with a focus that was appropriately centred on cultural and not economic impacts for source and host regions. Such candidates were usually able to preface their answers with an approximation of what diaspora means but segued immediately into a lengthy analysis of a single migratory destination, which was a pity. The inclusion of diaspora in the syllabus gives geographers an opportunity to explore how, say, Irish communities in New York and London differ from one another culturally – and from the ancestral culture of Ireland itself. There is also an opportunity to analyse a global population distribution – yet no candidates attempted to sketch a map or provide a table showing this population information as part of their introductory paragraph. Popular case studies included the Chinese and Jewish diasporas, albeit with little grasp of the global pattern. One or two looked at the Welsh community in Patagonia, which was an interesting choice.

Many candidates accessed band D by providing a basic, balanced analysis that synthetically employed some range of ideas from the syllabus, such as the power of TNCs and the growth of MGOs (used in favour of the statement) and China and North Korea’s decision to remain “switched-off” to varying degrees (used to argue against the statement). The best answers defined the concept – globalization – with enough flair to prepare the groundwork to deliver a superior, nuanced conclusion. For instance, by showing globalization to primarily be an economic process, but accompanied by political and cultural interactions too, an interesting conclusion can eventually be arrived at. One candidate argued that China’s leaders, while rejecting democracy and open-access internet (proxies for political and cultural globalization), have felt compelled to “opt in” to economic globalization in the hope of new wealth creation and poverty alleviation. This is exactly the kind of nuanced conclusion to the discussion that examiners were hoping to see.

Explain how global core areas (hubs) can be distinguished from peripheral areas.

Examine the geographical consequences of international outsourcing.

Candidates would be expected to define “global core areas/hubs” as significant places that provide a focal point for global flows and activities. They are places where major diaspora groups may be found or may be identified as source regions either for contemporary cultural diffusion (for example, Seattle’s computer industries) or economic imperialism (for example, Washington). The scale at which hubs can be identified is open to interpretation. Small cities like Cambridge (UK) are hubs, but so too are megacities such as Sao Paulo and small states including Monaco and Luxemburg.

Arguably, entire nations such as Singapore and South Korea could be described as hubs at which point the term hub is almost synonymous with “core” in world systems analysis. But an appropriate “core and periphery” analysis in 2011 should not simply echo 1970s World Systems theory. Responses that do not acknowledge this and do not examine more than a simple “MEDC–LEDC” worldview (for example, by at least acknowledging a semi-periphery of emerging economies/NICs) should not progress beyond band C. (Within bands D and E, a good explanation of a fuller range of characteristics could compensate for a more limited description of the hub/periphery pattern.)

At bands D and E, answers need to be focused on how such places can be distinguished from other places and should not just assert that they exist. People and organizations in hubs will display high levels of global participation which could be measured using KOF or AT Kearney indices. They may also host major diasporas or can be mapped as source regions for key “globalized” cultural traits including language (such as English or Spanish). Mapping the head offices of large TNCs is another route of inquiry. Other routes could include a ranking of the competitiveness of financial centres, airports, ports, internet bandwidth availability, reliance on agriculture.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Outsourcing should be clearly defined as the concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them [Guide 3]. “Geographical consequences” of outsourcing can encompass economic, political, social, cultural, environmental, geopolitical and demographic themes at varying scales, for both host and source regions. Outsourcing occurs across all sectors of industry from agriculture to high-tech research. It can be a complex affair when strings of sub-contractors (both upstream and downstream linkages) are part of the picture.

Improvements in ICT are an important consequence (due to the need for enhanced videoconferencing capability etc.) and not merely a cause of outsourcing [Guide 2, Guide 3]. So too are trade blocs (MGOs), insofar as businesses will lobby for expanded tariff-free trade areas within which they may outsource at lower cost to themselves [Guide 6].

At a national and local (city region) scale, a key theme must be the reaction to loss of jobs in “source” economies [Guide 7], but growth for emerging “host” economies. Sweatshop workers may be cast as “victims” or beneficiaries of global capitalism in this account according to the case studies used (outsourcing includes “white collar” work in Bangalore, for instance) or the candidate’s political convictions (although exploitation needs to be evidenced and not simply asserted). TNC shareholders may be recognized as being among the real winners of outsourcing [Guide 3].

Environmental aspects are likely to be a popular theme, notably in relation to pollution [Guide 4]. However, high band answers should make it clear that the problems result from outsourcing (so unreliable sub-contractors are the issue) and not simply the internationalization of trade.

It may not always be clear whether genuine outsourcing or a firm’s own division of labour is being discussed (for example, as a cause of de-industrialization in developed countries). The benefit of the doubt should be given and a band D mark could be awarded to answers that are insecure on the precise meaning of outsourcing but are strong on the varied geography of global shift.

There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits. Depth might compensate for lack of breadth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

This question produced a disappointing set of responses on the whole. Too many candidates merely asserted, wrongly, that a simplistic MEDC–LEDC divide still exists. There was next to no acknowledgment of globally important hubs such as Mumbai or Sao Paulo or other key settlements in emerging economies (or peripheral "LEDCs" as they were portrayed in most accounts, despite the BRIC group’s key role in driving global GDP growth today). Overall, the cohort showed poor understanding of contemporary economic geography and the global pattern of hub regions.

The use of the word "hub" in the guide, and in this question, ought to be a clear signal to centres that the core–periphery literature dating from the 1970s is not, in itself, sufficient background reading for the current global interactions course. Candidates who relied exclusively on this outdated framework found themselves erroneously describing a global system within which a global periphery, that includes China and India, continues to provide raw materials for the manufacturing firms found in developed countries. Examiners were left wondering whether, in other contexts, such candidates would be able to explain the rise of the Asian tigers and BRIC economies, or the de-industrialization of the old global core.

Thus a widespread lack of familiarity with the concept of emerging economies as new global hubs (which must surely come from examining the latest KOF or Kearney indices) was seen. There was little mention of the activities of the world’s financial hubs (which have triggered the global economic turndown that now surrounds us).

The concept of scale was clearly the biggest problem. There was a lack of comprehension that world cities in middle-income and low-income nations can nonetheless be global hubs. Effective teaching about globalization and global interactions needs to move beyond the nation state as the only frame of reference for patterns of wealth and connectivity.

Outsourcing is clearly defined in the guide. Many themes pertaining both to foreign direct investment and also outsourcing, such as financial flows, transboundary pollution and the factors encouraging the growth of multi-governmental organizations are scattered through the guide. Good candidates who were familiar with the synthetic nature of the part (b) essay mode of assessment rose to the occasion. The best answers came complete with plans that included positive and negative (or short-term and long-term) impacts, sub-divided into themed consequences such as economic [Guide 2/3]), environmental [Guide 4], political [Guide 6],  and social [Guide 7].

Well-informed candidates were thus able to highlight how global networks of outsourcing have helped drive the trend towards regional trade bloc integration. Elsewhere, outsourcing was seen as a factor that can be responsible for poor health and safety standards (some asserted, perhaps correctly, that this was the cause of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill). Outsourcing of back office functions to India was a popular theme, whose consequences were seen as being both positive (rising incomes) and sometimes negative (long and unsociable hours for call centre workers).

Some discussed the social reaction/anti-globalization movements against outsourcing (linked with de-industrialization, for example, of US manufacturing hubs). A few even argued that outsourcing has introduced new kinds of geographical risks for TNCs who find their supply chains disrupted by recent hazards such as Thai floods, Japan’s tsunami and Icelandic ash clouds. This is a truly synthetic theme and one that future candidates could be encouraged to explore further.

In contrast, weaker candidates were uncertain as to the exact nature of outsourcing and were clearly not able to differentiate between outsourcing and FDI (for instance, when discussing the relocation of US manufacturing to the Mexican maquiladoras). If a good range of consequences were developed, however, such candidates were still allowed to achieve a sound mark.

Using examples, analyse how foreign direct investment and glocalization are used by transnational corporations (TNCs) to help their expansion.

Examine the relationship between a country’s gross national income (GNI) and its level of participation in globalization.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) includes a range of different kinds of overseas investments made by transnational corporations (TNCs). These include: hiring outsourcing services (employing a third party to handle goods or services), establishing a “spatial division of labour” (building/buying company-owned branch plants or back offices in low-cost locations), mergers, acquisitions and franchises. Credit other possible financial outgoings (eg TNCs working alongside charities). Good answers should recognize more than one type of FDI, using examples.

Glocalization describes the adapting of a “universal” product to meet the cultural requirements of local markets (religion, taste, legal requirements may all vary from territory to territory). Glocalization is also linked to local sourcing strategies (using local suppliers), which may have political dimensions too (TNCs may be required to work with local partners eg in India). 

Candidates could comment on how geographic expansion is achieved through use of these strategies. TNCs achieve greater profits/market share through their geographic strategies, and can win local acceptance by embracing local people’s culture.

Candidates may additionally analyse how different strategies suit different TNCs (oil companies may not glocalize to the extent retailers do), or may analyse the weaknesses and not just the strengths of strategies.

Band C answers may describe examples of glocalization and/or FDI but with a lack of terminology and little mention of expansion (beyond asserting that it happens).

At band D, expect either a more detailed, exemplified explanation of both strategies (but do not expect balance) or some explicit analysis of how market expansion is achieved by particular TNCs.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Candidates will have studied global participation with reference to the Kearney or KOF globalization indices, which recognize economic, social and political strands of globalization. Therefore, accept a wide interpretation of what is meant by “participation” in globalization.

Possible themes suggesting a positive relationship between GNI and participation:

• well-known indexes (eg, KOF index) show high globalization scores for countries with a high GNI, as a rule [Guide 1]
• foreign direct investment by TNCs can bring many financial benefits that lead in turn to greater global economic participation for businesses and citizens (if incomes grow, allowing people to consume more globally-produced services or participate in tourism) [Guide 3)
• levels of sociocultural participation (an aspect of KOF) may also be higher for high-income countries [Guide 5]
• the role of remittances can be explored, as flows often take place between richer and poorer countries [Guide 3]
• poorer societies remain “non-globalized” eg, Amazonian tribes [Guide 7]
• poorer nations only experience one-way interactions – their assets are stripped by powerful nations/TNCs (raw materials, landgrabs) [Guide 4].

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• there are many types of global participation/interactions. People may participate in economic globalization but not necessarily cultural globalization (eg, Chinese factory workers with limited internet freedoms) [Guide 1]
• scale/disparities may be important. Some nations with higher GNI are “two-speed” societies: elite groups participate globally, not poorer groups [Guide 1]
• the relationship could be complex in the case of a migratory “brain drain” – remittances may boost GNI, but out-migration could reduce GNI too [Guide 3]
• the role of other aid/loans can be discussed – low GNI nations may be major beneficiaries of certain types of global financial flow [Guide 3]
• there are other possible exceptions/anomalies to the rule that can help lift a response into bands D/E.

At band C, some links between GNI/wealth and globalization should be described.

Band D should either provide a wider, detailed explanation of different links between GNI and participation or offer a more critical examination of what is meant by a country’s “participation in globalization”.

At band E, expect both.

While most candidates attempting this question were pleasingly familiar with glocalization, there was less familiarity with foreign direct investment (FDI). Some candidates explained why TNCs invest in foreign crime in order to reduce their costs (implying, perhaps, that such benefits might help a company’s future expansion). Only a few were able to demonstrate much understanding of how FDI flows operate beyond "building a factory". The best answers looked at outsourcing, while a tiny minority were aware of the geographical importance of mergers and joint ventures. Although McDonald’s is still the preferred case study of choice for candidates and teachers, most candidates remain in complete ignorance of how the company’s presence in India is in the form of a joint venture. This goes a long way to explaining why it has been so successful at glocalizing its products in India, due to the expert local knowledge of its Indian partner companies.

The command to “examine the relationship” (as opposed to “explain the relationship”) required candidates, ideally, to outline what underlying assumptions they would be making, preferably in their introduction. Weaker candidates generally established a simple positive correlation at the outset. Better answers suggested anomalies/outliers might need to be looked at too. At the very top end of the cohort, a small minority of candidates thought there could even be a reversal of the assumed relationship, whereby a wealthy country could maintain a degree of cultural isolation, whilst poorer countries sometimes become the global focus for international assistance and intervention, as in the case of Haiti. Sadly, most candidates did no more than assert that a strong positive relationship exists. To the credit of many, they performed a synthesis by suggesting that countries with a high GNI are likely to be home to many powerful TNCs, to be capable of cultural imperialism and to be highly attractive to economic migrants. Good answers sometimes made effective use of the KOF or Kearney index and demonstrated how some wealthy countries like the USA and UK score highly in all categories. However, it was a pity that more use was not made of interesting examples, such as China, which shows high participation in some ways but not in others.

Explain why the increasing needs of some countries for one or more raw materials are a cause of environmental concern.

“People living in the world’s most peripheral regions do not experience a ‘shrinking world’.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

AO1/2 Indicative content

Raw material(s) can include timber, copper, soya, oil, shale gas etc.

An account focused only on water should not progress beyond [6].

• The environmental concerns should clearly relate to the raw material chosen.
• There may be local and global dimensions (deforestation causing local degradation in addition to rising global carbon emissions).
• The countries/markets for the raw material can be identified.

Good answers may explain explicitly why there is concern over the increasing demand made by certain countries and may provide evidence to support this (eg China’s predicted growth in demand). Another approach might be to structure the explanation carefully around different categories of environmental concern.

For band C (4–6), an outline should be provided of either environmental problems/concerns linked with using raw material(s) or the needs of some countries.

For band D (7–8), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of

• either detailed environmental concerns linked with raw material(s) use/demand
• or the increasing resource needs for specified countries.

For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content

Peripheral regions: this is a contested term and is open to a variety of interpretations, ranging from isolated tribes, to landlocked African nations, to India and China (in relation to the G7/8 global “core”). Credit the “political periphery” of North Korea also. Each approach should be judged on its merits in terms of supporting evidence and argument.

Shrinking world: this refers to the way distant places are perceived to be nearer due to falling transport times and the instantaneous nature of electronic communications and data transfers.

Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:

• Even peripheral places are connected to global/regional internet/mobile networks.
• Peripheral places are connected to the core via flows of aid (including internet donations following disasters).
• The global spread of consumerism affects even peripheral places through the
  availability of imported food and goods.
• Media corporations have fostered widespread consumption of films and TV.
• Peripheral societies are visited by tourists.
• Exposure to global movements of pollution/waste may foster the sense of a shrinking world.

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might be structured around different strands of the shrinking world effect, eg use of transport, arrival of tourists, exposure to information flows
• might reflect critically on what is meant by “most peripheral”, who lives there, and the extent to which different groups of people in peripheral areas have differing experiences/perspectives on a shrinking world
• might reflect on the extent to which the world’s poor are sometimes compelled to travel as refugees or economic migrants, often considerable distances; while poor places are visited by representatives of the wealthy (charities, agencies), which provides some sense of “shrinking world” to both parties.

For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant
shrinking world/globalization themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.

Explain why the landscapes of major world cities are becoming increasingly similar.

“Global interactions are putting all the world’s wealth into the hands of a small number of people and countries.” Discuss this statement.

The focus should be an explanation of the landscapes of major world cities eg Sao Paulo, New York, Cape Town, Singapore, Mumbai, Barcelona, Dublin etc. These settlements may house “cloned” retailing districts and ubiquitous branded commodities (expect references to McDonald’s and Starbucks); also, a suggestion of “universal” modernist architecture in financial and housing districts (expect a range of examples in stronger responses); also, a broader response may encompass the proliferation of cultural and religious signs and symbols as a result of migration and diaspora (eg mosques, synagogues, churches all present in major world cities/global hubs). Metro-style transport networks are a common shared feature.

Explanation may include: the global influence of property developers (retail/financial/housing) key architects and their firms; inter-urban competition (eg status competition for the highest, or most modern-looking buildings); the power of TNCs to project global advertising messages in urban environments (and perhaps regulatory changes or trade bloc enlargements assisting their global expansion); rising affluence in emerging economies (thus enticing McDonald’s, etc); the “shrinking world” effect (the global diffusion of architectural styles, etc); migration leading to landscape changes; historical connections (colonial architecture).

The question does not require counter-argument although some may note that “similar” is not equivalent to “same” due to the survival of local architecture. The focus invites an overview of the world’s major cities/urban landscapes and the best answers may cite examples drawn from both developed world cities and those of some emerging economies eg “Asian Tigers”, Middle East, BRIC nations.

Band C answers are likely to be descriptive (lacking explanation) of urban homogenization, or explain cultural/global homogenization but without a landscape/city focus.

For band D, at least two reasons for urban/landscape homogenization should be well explained, or a wider range of reasons for cultural homogenization are explained in less detail and some links are made with urban landscapes. Band E should provide breadth and depth of explanation, with some variety of landscape exemplification.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The broadest macro-scale distributional contrasts should be clearly highlighted – including the high growth rates of emerging economies, especially those of China and India (can be used to support or argue against the question) and the continued lack of FDI for the poorest 50 LDCs. A historical view might contrast the historical Brandt Line north-south wealth distribution with today’s more complex pattern of cores [Guide 1]. Good answers may even appreciate the recent relative underperformance and loss of share of wealth of established core regions (Japan, USA, Eurozone). Answers should be focused on wealth, rather than “importance” and may have supporting data, eg GDP figures or income data or use of Gini index data. These changes may be linked with a range of explanatory reasons relating to economic interactions including FDI, remittances, aid etc. [Guide 3], changes in global participation [Guide 1] or geopolitical change and interaction [Guide 6].

The benefits of globalization are not evenly spread within nations and this is a reason for resistance from some groups [Guide 5/7]. One approach might be to examine the claim that “the rich get richer while the poor get poorer” and describe evidence for worker poverty within some nations, linked to FDI/TNCs [Guide 3], outsourcing or agro-industry employment [Guide 4]. Societies that have been excluded from global interactions (indigenous tribes, etc) may also be discussed [Guide 7].

Good answers may address the question at different scales, or may suggest a complex global pattern of “haves” and “have-nots” (perhaps by identifying wealth in the Middle East or East Asia, or highlighting the persisting poverty of the poorest LDCs eg Mali). The best answers may distinguish between relative and absolute levels of wealth. As the rich have got richer, the poor may hold a lessened share of wealth – this is not the same thing as losing wealth.

Band C responses may assert the statement is correct/incorrect, based on a narrow range of supporting ideas, lacking much specific evidence/information.

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion that provides a considered/balanced viewpoint/overview, clearly related to the changing distribution of global wealth. At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

There were some very descriptive answers seen, as commented on above. A commonly-made assertion was that TNCs “arrive” and transform the landscape. But why are TNCs arriving in Jakarta, Phnom Penh, Mumbai, Mombasa, Sao Paulo, and so on? Too many geography candidates are unable to meaningfully articulate why the world around us is changing. In strong answers, there was some recognition of the wealth growth amongst the new middle classes in global hubs such as Sao Paulo, attracting the interest of global capital. Good responses sometimes looked at the role of “re-branding” (modernizing the city, using cutting-edge architectural design) in order to attract further FDI (multiplier ideas). Some middle-ability candidates, however, lost focus on “major” world cities and wrote instead about small settlements (for example, “clone towns” in the UK, for which some credit could be gained provided the explanation was good and pertinent to the actual question set). Significant numbers wrote an inappropriate answer concerned with the Burgess concentric ring model, and asserted that this was a “universal” landscape (hence, they argued erroneously that all landscapes, from Tokyo to Illinois, must become the same in time, in strict line with Burgess’s wishes).

The general level of understanding in middle-ability responses to this question is also a cause for concern. Very few candidates seemed to show appropriate understanding of 21st century global economic geography. Not one single candidate, for instance, was seemingly aware that the McDonald’s franchises in India are 50% native-owned. Instead, the entire cohort asserted that “all the profits go to the USA”. Several more widely-used case studies suffered similarly from out-of-date, or just plain incorrect, content. Candidates had little or no knowledge of TNCs based in the BRIC or “Tiger” economies, such as Tata, Shanghai Electric or Samsung. Very few possessed up-to-date information about the world’s emerging middle class, such as the 40 million-strong C class in Brazil, who have enjoyed significant gains in consumption since the 1990s (though not in citizenship, which has been the focus of the recent riots in Brazil). It is, of course, entirely appropriate for candidates to be concerned with continuing poverty in parts of Africa, and the role that TNCs may play in perpetuating this. It is also true that a minority of billionaires monopolize a huge chunk of the world’s wealth, however, higher level diploma geography candidates should surely recognize that there is more to the changing global pattern of wealth than this. One good starting point for updating content is this recent McKinsey report: http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class

Explain why it might be hard to observe and measure some types of global interaction.

“Global interactions have brought only negative impacts to human landscapes and physical environments everywhere.” Discuss this statement.

The focus should be the challenge of collecting the data, rather than querying whether it should be included/used as a legitimate measure of global interactions/globalization. Many candidates, even at the band C/D border, may provide a general critique of the KOF/Kearney index, much of which is of marginal relevance to this particular question. These will need reading carefully for
references to the difficulties in collecting/measuring/observing global interactions. 

Expect candidates to show some familiarity with the Kearney and/or the KOF multi strand indexes of globalization. These compartmentalize globalization in terms of personal, economic, political aspects, etc. Some may correctly answer this question by focusing on those strands of Kearney/KOF that are hard/subjective to observe, or monitor – for instance, KOF’s “cultural proximity” measure.

The focus should be on explaining why it is hard observe some movements (such as the diffusion of cultural traits) and/or measuring/quantifying them. Possible themes:

• informal remittances from legal and illegal migrants are hidden
• unknown content of private information/data exchange
• criminal/illegal flows (trafficking of people and drugs) are not recorded
• TNCs may hide the movement of profits through tax havens (transfer pricing)
• complexities of tracking economic data/trade figures hence possible inaccuracy
• people may be watching “local” or “global” TV and other media, it is hard to tell.

Band C answers should describe difficulties associated with the collection of data for at least two types of global interaction (eg data flows, migration).

At band D, expect either a wider, more detailed range of data collection difficulties or some explicit analysis of the distinction between observation and measurement.

For band E, expect both.

Some candidates may discuss “the positive and negative impacts of human activity for physical and human geography” (ie a far broader focus than the given title). Whilst benefit of doubt should be given where deserved, note that some impacts, are
not necessarily a product of global interactions (Chernobyl), nor are all impacts of farming. Good candidates will stress the global dimensions of the case studies they use. Human impacts should relate to the landscape (so impacts such as “poverty alleviation” ideally need some link with a landscape change, such as housing improvement). Changes in ethnicity/language are perfectly valid as they form part of the cultural landscape. Accounts of global warming should be judged on their merits.

Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:

• there has been some homogenization of urban landscapes (uniform appearances, common activities, styles of construction, skyscrapers) [Guide 4]
• there are many physical themes that could be addressed, including degradation of the rainforest due to global demand eg, for soya, soil degradation (should be linked with global agribusiness), climate change (should be linked with international consumption of resources), transboundary pollution [Guide 4].

Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:

• global/local efforts for the protection of cultural landscapes eg, UNESCO sites or the resurgence of nationalism in relation to the protection of the built environment [Guide 6, Guide 7]
• global civil society organizations/NGOs have fostered environmental awareness [Guide 4].

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• not all countries participate in global interactions to the same extent so effects are highly variable in any case [Guide 1]
• different perspectives exist on what constitutes “negative” in relation to cultural landscapes (though there will be broader agreement on what constitutes a negative or positive impact on the physical environment).

For band C, some impacts to human landscapes and physical environments should be described (do not expect balance) and linked with global interactions.

Band D should either provide a wider, evidenced discussion of both impacts (do not expect perfect balance) or offer a more critical discussion of the statement, perhaps querying what is meant by “everywhere” or “negative”.

At band E, expect both.

In a previous exam paper, candidates were asked to explain how global interactions are measured. It was therefore appropriate to ask for a different approach to be taken with this latest question. Candidates were asked to focus their thoughts on why attempts at quantifying global interactions might not be successful. A helpful steer was given with the words “observe” and “measure”, which provided two avenues for candidates to explore. Good answers thoughtfully considered how hard it might be to record certain types of illegal and legal global flows. Some candidates recognized that many types of data might be inaccurate and hard to measure reliably. A few thoughtful responses even focused on whether it is possible to track the transmission of ideas, trends or beliefs as they spread around the planet. Sadly, too many candidates reproduced a prepared response to a slightly different kind of critique and focused instead on the legitimacy of investigating certain types of global interaction. In such cases, one popular theme was a country’s involvement with UN peacekeeping missions. Certainly, the legitimacy of using this as a proxy indictor of a country’s level of globalization is open to question. However, it was not appropriate to do so as part of an answer to this particular question, given that peacekeeping missions can be observed and counted.

Good answers were seen which offered a synthetic range of both physical and human transformations, some negative but others positive. The best answers demonstrated good technique, by balancing the four corners of their answer well (physical – positive; physical – negative; human – positive; human – negative). A few even queried whether human changes could be categorized as positive or negative given that “beauty is in the eye of the beholder” (especially in relation to the global spread of eye-catching modernist architecture). Weaker answers typically failed to provide balance, or did not focus very well on the role of global interactions. Instead, such candidates wrote a much broader, unfocused answer that looked at the impacts of different societies on the environment.

Using examples, analyse the benefits of globalized production for local societies.

To what extent is environmental sustainability incompatible with the growth of globalization?

The different local societies may be in producer or consumer nations/areas. States can be treated as "local" places within a global context.

Examples of “globalized production” can be taken from any sector of industry: agribusiness, manufacturing or service sector (eg the outsourcing of call centres). The benefits for producer nations/areas could be economic (including multipliers, cheaper mass-produced goods, etc) and/or social (eg improved work opportunities for women, increased family wages and thus educational opportunities for children). Also credit the idea of increased consumer choice (eg fast food).

There are also benefits for local societies/regions that are now consumer/post-industrial regions, following global shift/relocation of polluting industries. It can be argued that they have “re-invented” themselves as cleaner, higher-wage societies that additionally benefit from cheap imports of global goods from producer regions.

Do not credit benefits for TNCs, or disadvantages for local societies, as neither is asked for by the question. Any such material should be deemed irrelevant.

For band C, two benefits of globalized production should be described in relation to local society/societies in general.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of benefits and/or recognizable local societies, or a structured account that conceptualizes some different kinds of globalized production.

At band E, expect all of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be whether environmental sustainability – the idea that future generations should enjoy the same landscapes, ecosystem services, resources, etc that are available for living generations – cannot be guaranteed if globalization continues along its current trajectory (with resulting environmental degradation).

Globalization is the growing economic interdependence of the world, accompanied by increased global flows of goods, people, capital, information. The “growth” of globalization is associated with high economic growth rates in emerging economies/NICs/BRICs and this may be commented on/highlighted as an area of particular environmental concern, along with the already large footprint of the USA and, to a lesser extent, Japan, Australia, NZ and EU nations. Some answers may lack focus on globalization/sustainability and instead describe how human activity in general results in problems such as acid rain, eutrophication and nuclear accidents (to name but a few). Such partial answers may still reach the band C/D border if they are sufficiently synthetic (see below).

Possible themes for synthesis linked to sustainability/globalization include:

• growth of core regions [Guide 1]
• growth of transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• ICT and information flows (may have lower footprint) [Guide 3]
• agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• environmental awareness and green messaging [Guide 4]
• food miles and air freight [Guide 4]
• globalization of branded commodities (and implications for resource use and waste) [Guide 5]
• de-industrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• some local sourcing movements are rooted in anti-globalization/sustainability rhetoric [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may evaluate the extent to which some aspects of globalization are less harmful to the environment than others. Alternatively, a good inquiry of “to what extent” might take the view that growing global environmental awareness, or global cooperation on environmental issues and “technical fixes”, can ameliorate environmental degradation and may yet mean that long-term environmental sustainability is possible.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that considers the extent to which the statement is true.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Explain how global interaction may be measured.

Examine the effects of the development of communications upon international interactions.

Likely responses may refer to a named globalization index such as the AT Kearney or the KOF index. Any index chosen should be explained in some detail. For example, if the Kearney index is chosen its four key components should be named:

• economic integration
• personal contact
• technological connectivity
• political engagement.

The response should give some indication of how each of these is measured and is likely to provide an example. For instance, within the Kearney index, personal contact includes remittances/travel/telephone.

Responses should suggest the units for one or more parts of the index, for example, telephone – minutes of international traffic per capita.

Most indices of interactions are compound indices based on several components. Weighting factors are applied, a total score is calculated and countries may then be ranked.

To access band D and above, responses should include:

• a recognized index with its components
• an explanation for the ranking of countries
• named examples.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

The response should recognize a variety of kinds of communications (transport, telecommunications and the internet) and interactions (socio-cultural, economic and political). For example, the increasing capacity and speed of transport systems has facilitated the international transfer of goods through trade. It has also stimulated cultural integration through labour transfers and tourism. ICT has increased all aspects of international interaction, in particular financial transfers and business transactions. ICT has also allowed easier international exchange of ideas and political negotiation.

Answers attaining band D and above must focus upon international interaction, not just outcomes. Answers attaining band E must also include references to transport as well as ICT. Named examples are also expected at these levels.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Using examples, explain how financial flows transfer wealth between places.

“Glocalization is the most important reason why some transnational corporations (TNCs) have grown in size and influence over time.” Discuss this statement.

Financial flows (based on geography subject guide) include loans, debt relief/repayment, international aid, FDI, profit leakage and remittances (do not credit “goods”). The spatial focus could be the global core and periphery (although these terms are dynamic and contested and a variety of interpretations are acceptable, so long as named examples are also included). Some answers may additionally explain that there are legal and illegal (criminal, informal) mechanisms of money transfer; or can explain how “transfer pricing” and offshore tax havens are used by TNCs to transfer money between places.

Better answers may provide superior evidence/case study details of the wealth flows (quoting dollar values or percentage contributions to GDP, etc). They may also consider the varied directions of the flows (whether towards core/MEDCs or towards periphery/LDCs). They may even consider flows at the local scale too (eg may consider how international aid or FDI flows transfer wealth towards an LDC, yet do not necessarily reach the poorest people/parts of that state).

For band C, at least two financial flows must be described with some exemplification of one flow (either of places or the size/scale of the flows).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the major financial flows (may look at how a wider range operate; may provide much more detailed evidence for a smaller range)
• or some explanation of how some major financial flows can operate in different directions (may even consider different scales).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Responses would be expected to define glocalization, providing examples of its effectiveness as a strategy for bridging/building new markets [Guide 5].

A fully synthetic and evaluative answer should debate the statement with reference to other, possibly more important, factors. These could include growth in technology associated with globalization, for example, containers or ICT [Guide 2] or the growth of MGOs allowing easier access to markets, possibly triggering mergers and acquisitions (for example, Cemex and domestic cement companies within NAFTA trade bloc) [Guide 6]. The economic factors that triggered global shift (such as cheap labour) are important and the role of outsourcing could be discussed [Guide 3]. Other strategies employed by global brands may also be addressed that explain diffusion over time and space, such as the promotion of consumerism through brand advertising [Guide 5].

Some candidates may conceptualize TNCs as a broad category that includes energy companies and agribusinesses, which would not be expected to adopt glocalization to the same extent as branded commodity providers and the service industry (global banking).

For band C, at least one glocalization strategy must be described and its effectiveness commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either other more detailed reasons for TNC growth (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, using at least one other theme synthesized from the subject guide, probably the role of technology/transport)
• or some more explicit discussion of how glocalization helps some TNCs (perhaps not all) to develop their size and influence (eg cultural acceptance is gained in varied geographical contexts/new markets) over time.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, analyse the concept of “loss of sovereignty”.

Examine how economic, technological and political factors may all influence the growth of global diaspora populations.

Loss of sovereignty is principally understood in political and/or economic terms. It encompasses the diminishing effectiveness of political borders and subsequent changes in flow of goods/capital/labour/ideas and perhaps the location of economic activities. These changes may be viewed by governments and/or citizens as the ceding of power/independence in potentially problematic ways.

The concept is most likely explored in relation to the growth of multi-governmental organizations such as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. In the case of the EU, there are additional governance and currency issues to perhaps consider.

However, the concept of sovereignty is even broader than this in some people’s view, and may also be taken to include:

• the shift in power away from states and towards TNCs as a result of their economic size and dominance. This may be linked with the state’s loss of direct control over its own resources (oil, minerals)
• largely inescapable cultural changes such as loss of native languages and customs, beyond state control (and the associated concepts of cultural imperialism and the shrinking world)
• IMF/World Bank or other “top-down” assistance that comes with strings attached eg structural adjustment (SAPs)
• free trade and abandonment of protectionism could lead to changes which increase dependency on other trading partners.

Other interpretations of “loss of sovereignty” may be credited provided some change/loss over time features in the account.

For band C, two impacts of a powerful global/top-down force or change (such as an MGO, TNCs or information flows) should be described that have some bearing on a recognizable state’s independence/autonomy.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of exemplified impacts or a briefer account that conceptualizes what “loss of sovereignty” might involve.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the growth of diasporas – globally dispersed populations of common ancestry/ethnicity/religion. An effective examination should give consideration to all three, economic, technological and political factors.

The factors give rise to migration which in turn generates diaspora growth. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of diaspora populations must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons for migration between different countries).

Possible themes linked to diaspora growth include:

• active role of diaspora source nations in the growth of diasporas [Guide 5]
• shrinking world, including transnational family connectivity using ICT, or cheaper/easier means to disperse eg cheaper air flights [Guide 2]
• many of the political controls on global interactions can discourage migration and thus diaspora growth eg nationalism, anti-immigration rhetoric/policies [Guide 6] or controls on technology eg internet censorship [Guide 2]
• key role of economic labour flows as a global interaction [Guide 3]
• growth of EU has aided growth of “instant” diasporas within Europe due to freedom of movement [Guide 5]
• roots of globalization in empires of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries established patterns of post-colonial migration between global periphery and core [Guide 1] and eg growth of African diasporas in Europe/Americas
• global homogenization of landscapes [Guide 4] and consumer culture [Guide 5] may make different places become more familiar, so becomes less of a wrench to migrate overseas
• poverty might limit out-migration from the poorest countries of the global periphery [Guide 2].

Good answers that score highly at AO3 may additionally examine how the three different factors are interrelated (particularly within the context of the free movement of people within the EU), or may examine how the factors can both encourage or discourage migration. Another approach might be to examine explicitly the relative importance of the three factors in different contexts.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of all three factors with supporting details (do not expect balance), or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically examines the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, distinguish between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement.

“Due to global interactions, there is no longer a global periphery.” Discuss this statement.

Transboundary pollution (TBP) is pollution that crosses a national border accidently or inadvertently due to physical processes (atmosphere, currents, etc). Recent examples of transboundary pollution (TBP) include forest fires in Indonesia causing smog in Singapore; Chinese pollution reaching Japan; and radiation from Fukushima reaching the shores of the USA. Also credit acid rain (if clearly shown to be transboundary) and credit Chernobyl (1986). [The Gulf of Mexico oil spill was not a TBP event because only the USA was affected. Candidates using this example only may still attain band D according to other criteria, but ought not be awarded band E.]

Transnational waste movement (TWM) includes landfill in China originating in USA; European e-waste arriving in Accra (Ghana); ship-breaking in Bangladesh; Trafigura’s chemical waste from Europe arriving in Ivory Coast. This is a purposeful/intended global interaction/trade transaction. It is acceptable to view discarded household goods (eg clothes for charity) as a form of waste. Waste can also be a very valuable resource when recycled, so TWM can be seen as a positive interaction. Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to distinguish (beyond simply employing comparative language such as “whereas”): eg TBP may involve the dispersal of point source pollution into multiple territories whereas TWM is a movement from one territory to another; TBP has negative impacts/costs money but TWM can also be positive/makes money; TBP is accidental but TWM is deliberate, etc).

For band C, expect some description of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance).

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance) or a good attempt to distinguish between them.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The global periphery may be defined as regions outside/beyond the core. Historically, some states were identified as being peripheral due to their spatial distance/isolation or lack of integration into economic and political systems. In 2015, this idea of peripheral states is only a very basic/antiquated starting point. A contemporary account might acknowledge also the existence of semi-peripheral states (middle-income countries) or the presence of important global hubs/cores such as Lagos in states that some people might still view as being part of a global periphery.

Another approach might be to discuss the extent to which various global flows and interactions (from international aid to social networks) have networked/connected the majority of the world’s states and a large proportion of their peoples. To give a counterargument, examples might be cited of isolated states and regions, from which we can infer the existence of a “global periphery”.

Possible themes include:

• economic globalization of low-income countries through trade, aid, loans [Guide 3] that may originate in EU/USA “core” countries but also emerging economies/BRICs/NICs [Guide 1 and 3]
• cultural interactions between countries in the core and periphery [Guide 5]
• isolated states eg North Korea, China (culturally); non-globalized tribal groups [Guide 6 and 7]
• the “shrinking world” effect that brings connectivity to previously peripheral places [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and global media that help to connect places through the growth of a common “core” culture (possibly modified by glocalization) which more and more places share [Guide 5].

Good answers may discuss differing degrees of “peripheral” states (perhaps including semiperiphery, non-globalized periphery). Another approach might be to discuss the multi-scale existence of core and periphery patterns (recognizing the global importance of world cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America). Another approach might be to discuss what is meant by “global interactions” in the context of this question (referring to a variety of trade flows, aid flows, migration flows, information flows, etc).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how global interactions have contributed to the disappearance/persistence/modification of a “global periphery” of places/people. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Most candidates understood clearly the difference between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement. Relevant examples were used, although the detail and accuracy was variable. Very few used Fukushima as a case study, preferring to use the 30-year-old Chernobyl example instead. This is a pity and clearly goes against the ethos of the course which is stated on page 13 of the geography guide. The best answers understood the significance of the command term “distinguish” and were awarded full marks accordingly.

A handful of excellent answers showed deep understanding of how global interactions have modified the previously binary world system (the “north/south” or “core/periphery” of the immediate post-war period). They wrote about the evolution of a far more complex world, beginning with the rise of the Asian Tigers in the 1950s. Other strong answers dealt with the statement on a flow-by-flow basis and understood that a country like China could be regarded as being part of an economic core but had chosen to remain peripheral to social networks such as Facebook. Weaker answers tended to focus mainly on isolated tribes and the Sahel as non-globalized places. Done well, however, band D was still achievable through the use of this narrow approach.

Explain how and why one network (transport, internet, or communication) has grown over time.

Examine the relative importance of the different financial flows that connect global core areas with peripheral areas.

The description of “how” may include some account of changes in user numbers and the global pattern of distribution, including key nodes and hubs where large amounts of traffic (people, goods or information) are routed.

Some candidates may select one example of transport (for example, container shipping) while others may address transport in general. Either approach is acceptable and should be credited according to its merits.

While it is desirable that good answers can describe the spatial growth of the chosen network over time, it is also acceptable for the answer to instead describe growth in the intensity of use of the network over time (this applies particularly to an analysis of the worldwide web or of “global travel”).

The account of “why” should focus on a rising number of users/affluent markets, thereby causing networks to grow (in size or intensity of use) to help meet the needs of more individuals (leisure/tourism/work) and businesses, including TNCs and/or governments.

The overcoming of physical, economic, or political obstacles could form an important part of the account (either “how” or “why”). For example, an analysis of internet growth might mention physical challenges being overcome (through the laying of undersea cables). Or an account of airline growth might mention advancements in technology (Airbus) or the growth of cheap airlines. Equally, key milestones in the roll-out of the technology (for example, invention of TCP/IP protocol for the internet) can be applied to support either strand of the answer.

To access band D, both “how” and “why” need to be adressed in relation to the same network example. To access band E, the response should be well balanced, although a good explanation of “how” could balance a weaker account of “why” or vice versa.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Responses would be expected to outline some key financial flows: loans (and the repayment of interest/debt), Foreign Direct Investment, profit flows, share trades, remittances and international aid (government and NGOs) [Guide 3]. Food, raw materials, manufactured goods and services (all sold for profit) may also be addressed. The response should also provide some explanation of what is meant by a “global core area” and perhaps some discussion of the varied nature of the periphery (LDCs and NICs, for instance) [Guide 1]. There will be varying interpretations of what constitutes a core or peripheral area (for example, the issue of where BRICs are placed). The best answers may even critically address the issue of scale (for example, rural India is peripheral to the world economy but Mumbai could be described as a core/hub area) [Guide 1].

The relative importance of the flows needs to be addressed. Globally, FDI dwarfs aid flows, for instance. The power of TNCs is arguably greater than that of many sovereign states [Guide 6] and aid agencies, suggesting that trade flows may be more influential than aid flows in terms of the impact they have on different places and people’s lives.

The idea of what constitutes “important” may also be reflected on, or explicit recognition provided that many flows operate in both directions and so net effects are hard to quantify.

Any conclusion reached will be context-dependent. While the “Asian miracle” is often taught as a vindication of the transformative power of FDI, other localities have rejected FDI and aid flows (there are South American and African examples) and there is a spectrum of local reactions to international flows [Guide 7]. Accept a broad interpretation of what is meant by “currency”, for example, gold, diamonds.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

The question was generally quite well answered, although there was a tendency for weaker candidates to ignore the spatial aspects implied by the term "network" in the question (and subject guide). A small number of candidates explained the growth of more than one network by, for example, writing about transport and communications networks. (This approach tended to bring breadth of description, rather than depth of explanation, resulting in a lower likelihood of reaching band E.) A few very strong responses charted the growth (that is, actual spatial expansion) of airline hubs, or the roll-out of broadband (and could reference the internet "switching-on" of specific places, such as Kenya or Bangalore, rather than "Africa" or "Asia" in general).

The poorest answers described a timeline of travel ("growth" came to mean "speeding up" – not quite the same thing), starting with the invention of the wheel or walking. Within the context of a contemporary global interactions paper, this kind of "general knowledge" response would not have achieved many marks.

A proper examination of the "relative importance" of financial flows was not always delivered by candidates; most conclusions failed to reach the desired level of evaluation. Better responses did, however, make accurate reference to a variety of financial flows and displayed a good grasp of how they connect core and peripheral areas bidirectionally. The weakest responses failed to relate core and peripheral areas to specific locations and exhibited little knowledge of what flows are financial, or how financial flows operate. Moreover, some had no grasp of what the "core and periphery" pattern looks like in a 21st century global context. A simple "Brandt Line approach" is not an appropriate framework for contemporary global analysis, given today's complex map of emerging economies and the spread of world cities/global hubs. No credit was given to those who took "core" to mean CBD.